Recent briefings have made some simplifying assumptions – that customers switch between rivals for any gain, no matter how small, that they do so instantly, and that they always work out what’s economically optimal – none of which are very realistic! Switching can require time and effort. Some costs are…

In industries where customers buy substantial projects, each contract is effectively a case of type-1 rivalry – either we win it, or a competitor does. Examples include construction projects in civil engineering or process industries, IT projects for government departments, and large consultancy studies. Customers usually ask possible suppliers to…